Content Anaylsis

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Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data (i.e. text). Using content analysis, researchers can quantify and analyze the presence, meanings and relationships of such certain words, themes, or concepts.
Content analysis is a research technique used to make replicable and valid inferences by interpreting and coding textual material. By systematically evaluating texts (e.g., documents, oral communication, and graphics), qualitative data can be converted into quantitative data.


Three different definition of content analysis are provided below.


Definition 1: “Any technique for making inferences by systematically and objectively identifying special characteristics of messages.” (from Holsti, 1968)


Definition 2: “An interpretive and naturalistic approach. It is both observational and narrative in nature and relies less on the experimental elements normally associated with scientific research (reliability, validity and generalizability) (from Ethnography, Observational Research, and Narrative Inquiry, 1994-2012).


Definition 3: “A research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication.” (from Berelson, 1952)
https://www.mailman.columbia.edu/research/population-health-methods/content-analysis

. The ten steps of content analysis

The ten step of content analysis are:

1) Copy and read through the transcript - make brief notes in the margin when interesting or relevant information is found

2) Go through the notes made in the margins and list the different types of information found

3) Read through the list and categorise each item in a way that offers a description of what it is about

4) Identify whether or not the categories can be linked any way and list them as major categories (or themes) and / or minor categories (or themes)

5) Compare and contrast the various major and minor categories

6) If there is more than one transcript, repeat the first five stages again for each transcript

7) When you have done the above with all of the transcripts, collect all of the categories or themes and examine each in detail and consider if it fits and its relevance

8) Once all the transcript data is categorised into minor and major categories/themes, review in order to ensure that the information is categorised as it should be.

9) Review all of the categories and ascertain whether some categories can be merged or if some need to them be sub-categorised

10) Return to the original transcripts and ensure that all the information that needs to be categorised has been so.

The process of content analysis is lengthy and may require the researcher to go over and over the data to ensure they have done a thorough job of analysis

must visit :https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/content-analysis/

Inductive deductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning is a logical process in which multiple premises, all believed true or found true most of the time, are combined to obtain a specific conclusion. Inductive reasoning is often used in applications that involve prediction, forecasting, or behavior.

https://study.com/academy/lesson/deductive-reasoning-examples-definition-quiz.html

Deductive Approach (Deductive Reasoning) A deductive approach is concerned with “developing a hypothesis (or hypotheses) based on existing theory, and then designing a research strategy to test the hypothesis”[1] It has been stated that “deductive means reasoning from the particular to the general.

https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/inductive-reasoning

The main difference between inductive and deductive approaches to research is that whilst a deductive approach is aimed and testing theory, an inductive approach is concerned with the generation of new theory emerging from the data.

A deductive approach usually begins with a hypothesis, whilst an inductive approach will usually use research questions to narrow the scope of the study.

For deductive approaches the emphasis is generally on causality, whilst for inductive approaches the aim is usually focused on exploring new phenomena or looking at previously researched phenomena from a different perspective.

Inductive approaches are generally associated with qualitative research, whilst deductive approaches are more commonly associated with quantitative research. However, there are no set rules and some qualitative studies may have a deductive orientation.

One specific inductive approach that is frequently referred to in research literature is grounded theory, pioneered by Glaser and Strauss.

This approach necessitates the researcher beginning with a completely open mind without any preconceived ideas of what will be found. The aim is to generate a new theory based on the data.

Once the data analysis has been completed the researcher must examine existing theories in order to position their new theory within the discipline.

Grounded theory is not an approach to be used lightly. It requires extensive and repeated sifting through the data and analysing and re-analysing multiple times in order to identify new theory. It is an approach best suited to research projects where there the phenomena to be investigated has not been previously explored.

The most important point to bear in mind when considering whether to use an inductive or deductive approach is firstly the purpose of your research; and secondly the methods that are best suited to either test a hypothesis, explore a new or emerging area within the discipline, or to answer specific research questions. 

reference

https://deborahgabriel.com/2013/03/17/inductive-and-deductive-approaches-to-research/

Survey Research

SURVEY  to ask (many people) a question or a series of questions in order to gather information about what most people do or think about something.  A survey is used to know or get the opinions of a large group of people about a particular topic or issue.
5. STEPS IN CONDUCTING A SURVEY • ask a number of questions, all related to the issue, to find answers. • select a sample • administer the questions to each samples • analyze the responses of the samples • draw conclusions about the opinions of the sample • generalize to the population from which the sample was selected.
6. CHARACTERISTICS OF A SURVEY 1. Information is collected from a group of people 2. The main way in which the information is collected is through asking questions 3. Information is collected from a sample rather than from every member of the population.
11. STEPS IN CONDUCTIN G A SURVEY Steps in Conducting the Survey Method
12. 1. DEFINING THE PROBLEM What exactly do you want to know? We have to clearly define the objectives in conducting the survey. The questions in the survey should each relate to one or more of the survey’s objectives.
13. 2. IDENTIFYING THE TARGET POPULATION Survey data are collected from a number of individual units of analysis to describe those units; these descriptions are then summarized to describe the population that the units of analysis represent.
14. 3. CHOOSING THE MODE OF DATA COLLECTION
15. Direct Administration to a Group Mail Surveys Telephone Surveys Personal Interviews Choosing the Mode of Data Collection
16. DIRECT ADMINISTRATION TO A GROUP This method is used whenever a researcher has access to all (or most) of the members of a particular group in one place.  Examples would include giving questionnaires to students to complete in their classrooms or workers complete at their job setting.

17. MAIL SURVEYS This method is used when data in a survey are collected by mail, the questionnaire is sent to each individual in the sample, with a request that it be completed and then returned by a given date.
18. TELEPHONE SURVEYS This method is used when the researcher asks questions of the respondents over the telephone. *Nowadays, given the fast-pace of technology, communication has been more accessible for all. Computers are being used more in telephone surveys.
19. PERSONAL INTERVIEWS This method is used when the researcher conducts face-to-face interview with the respondent. Rapport can be established, questioned can be clarified, unclear or incomplete answers can be followed-up, and so on. *Face-to-face interviewing also places less of a burden on the reading and writing skills of the respondents and, when necessary, permits spending more time with respondents.
20. 4. SELECTING THE SAMPLE • The subjects to be surveyed should be selected from the population of interest. • Researchers must ensure that the subjects they intend to question possess the desired information and that they will be willing to answer these questions.
21. 4. SELECTING THE SAMPLE Some examples of samples that have been surveyed by educational researchers are as follows: • A sample of all students attending an urban university concerning their views on the adequacy of the general education program at the university • A sample of all faculty members in an inner-city high school district as to the changes needed to help “at-risk” students learn more effectively.
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29. 5. PREPARING THE INSTRUMENT According to Fowler, there are four practical standards that all survey questions should meet: 1. Is this a question that can be asked exactly the way it is written? 2. Is this a question that will mean the same thing to everyone? 3. Is this a question that people can answer? 4. Is this a question that people will be willing to answer, given the data collection procedures?
30. 5. PREPARING THE INSTRUMENT • In an interview schedule, he or she must ask the questions in such a way that the subjects of the study want to respond. • The audience to whom the questions are to be directed should be clearly identified. • Specialized or unusual words should be avoided if possible, or if they must be used, defined clearly in the instructions written in the instrument. • Whatever the type of instrument is used, the same questions must be asked of all respondents in a sample.
31. TYPES OF QUESTIONS Closed-ended Questions • Easy to use, score, and code for analysis on a computer. • It also poses the possibility that an individual’s true response is not present among the options given.
32. CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONS • Some examples of closed-ended questions are the following: Which subject do you like least? a. Social Studies b. English c. Science d. Mathematics e. Others (specify) Very Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Satisfied Very Satisfied a. Coursework 1 2 3 4 b. Professors 1 2 3 4 c. Advising 1 2 3 4 d. Requirements 1 2 3 4 e. Cost 1 2 3 4 f. Others (specify) 1 2 3 4 Rate each of the following parts of your master’s degree program by circling the number under the phrase that describes how you feel.
33. TYPES OF QUESTIONS Open-ended Questions • Allow for more individualized responses but they are sometimes difficult to interpret. • They are often hard to score, since so many different kinds of responses are received.
34. OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS Some examples of open-ended questions are as follows: • What characteristic of a person would lead you to rate him or her as a good administrator? • What do you consider to be the most important problem facing classroom teachers in high school today? • What were the three things about this class you found most useful during the past semester?
35. PREPARING THE INSTRUMENT: QUESTIONS Sometimes researchers find it useful to combine both formats in a single question, as shown in the following example: Please rate and comment on each of the following aspects of this course: Very Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Satisfied Very Satisfied a. Coursework 1 2 3 4 Comments:_____________________________________________ ____
36. Closed-Ended Open-Ended Advantages  Enhance consistency of response across respondents  Allow more freedom of response  Easier and faster to tabulate  Easier to construct  More popular with respondents  Permit follow-up by interviewer Disadvantages  May limit breadth of responses  Tend to produce responses that are inconsistent in length and content across respondents  Take more time to construct  Both questions and responses subject to misinterpretation  Require more questions to cover the research topic  Harder to tabulate and synthesize Advantages and Disadvantages of Closed-Ended Versus Open-Ended Questions
37. PRETESTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE • Once the questions to be included in the questionnaire or the interview schedule have been written, the researcher is well advised to try them out with a small sample similar to the potential respondents. • A “pretest” of the questionnaire or interview schedule can reveal ambiguities, poorly worded questions, questions that are not understood, and unclear choices. • It can also indicate whether the instructions to the respondents are clear


.article/survey-research











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MEASUREMENT RELIABILITY VALIDITY

In statistics and research, internal consistency is typically a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same sub scale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores.

Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. A test is considered reliable if we get the same result repeatedly. For example, if a test is designed to measure a trait (such as introversion), then each time the test is administered to a subject, the results should be approximately the same.

Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. Psychologists consider three types of consistency: over time (test-retest reliability), across items (internal consistency), and across different researchers (inter-rater reliability).

Reliability and validity are concepts used to evaluate the quality of research. They indicate how well a method, technique or test measures something. Reliability is about the consistency of a measure, and validity is about the accuracy of a measure.

Reliability. Reliability is the degree to which the measure of a construct is consistent or dependable. ... A more reliable measurement may be to use a weight scale, where you are likely to get the same value every time you step on the scale, unless your weight has actually changed between measurements. FOR MORE VISIT THE LINK BELOW

https://opentextbc.ca/researchmethods/chapter/reliability-and-validity-of-measurement/

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Conceptual and operational definitions in research

A conceptual definition tells you what the concept means, what your constructs are by explaining how they are related to other constructs, while an operational definition only tells you how to measure it.

A conceptual definition tells you what the concept means, while operational definitions only tell you how to measure it. If you have only an operational definition, you may know how to measure it, but you won't know what you are measuring. This means that your measurements won't be worth much, considering that you don't know what the concept is, so you don't know what you measured. A concept defined only operationally may make a nice little ceremony as you carry out the steps described by the operational definition, but it doesn't mean anything and it is not related to other concepts.
In your conceptual definitions you explain what your constructs are by showing how they relate to other constructs. This explanation and all of the constructs it refers to are abstract — their existence is only as real and concrete as the thoughts you have while you watch a seagull soar past on a stiff breeze. To work with your constructs, you must establish a connection between them and the concrete reality in which you live. This process is called operationalization. 

Your operational definitions describe the variables you will use as indicators and the procedures you will use to observe or measure them. You need an operational definition because you can't measure anything without one, no matter how good your conceptual definition might be.

ref http://www.sfu.ca/personal/archives/richards/Zen/Pages/Chap3.htm


CONCEPTUAL FIT
a clear and logical fit between the conceptual definition of communication concept and its operational definition.
a clear conceptual fit makes research focused
measure what you intent to

 makes it possible to replicate the study

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