The hypodermic needle model (known as the hypodermic-syringe model, transmission-belt model, or magic bullet theory)

The hypodermic needle model (known as the hypodermic-syringe model, transmission-belt model, or magic bullet theory) is a model of communication suggesting that an intended message is directly received and wholly accepted by the receiver. The model was originally rooted in 1930s behaviorism and largely considered obsolete for a long time, but big data analytics-based mass customization has led to a modern revival of the basic idea.



Function



The theory “suggests that the message is a bullet, fired from the ‘media gun’ into the viewer's head,’” states the University of Twente. In this model, the audience is passive. Viewers are sitting ducks with no chance to avoid or resist the impact of the message. Mass media, in this view, is dangerous because people believe the message since there is no other source of information. It is a "crude model," adds Media Know All, since it leaves out any attempt by the audience to consider or challenge the data.




Theory



Information, the theory claims, passes into the audience members’ consciousness as a mass or single entity, without regard for individual opinions, experiences or intelligence. In this theory, the creators of mass media strictly manipulate the audience as a single unit and the media-makers find it easy to direct viewer’s thoughts and actions. Magic bullet theory assumes that the audience is singular and passive.



Application



This theory, based on assumptions about human nature rather than on empirical evidence, was not as widely accepted as mass-media experts of the era indicated. The most famous magic bullet incident was the 1938 radio broadcast of “The War of the Worlds” and the mass reaction of the American audience that thought it was real. In reality, this incident sparked research into the phenomenon and eventually showed that reactions depended on situational and attitudinal aspects of the various individual listeners.



Misconceptions



In the 1940 presidential election of Franklin D. Roosevelt, a study called “The People’s Choice” tested the theory. The study, conducted by Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson and Hazel Gaudet used a modification of the magic bullet theory called the Two Step Flow theory. Instead of proving the theory, it showed that the majority of viewers did not respond to the propaganda. The results actually showed that interpersonal relationships influenced people more often by the media.



Significance


The magic bullet theory is considered too cumbersome to test and offers inaccurate results. Modern researchers wanted more empirical explanations for the relationship between media and audience. Since media obviously did not turn the audience into unthinking drones, those studying the field sought a more definable reaction. Some groups still quote the theory to explain why certain audiences should not be exposed to certain media such as youth to comics in the 1950s or rap in the 2000s, reports Media Know All, “for fear that they will watch or read sexual or violent behavior[s] and will then act them out themselves.”

Netiquette"

Netiquette" refers to Internet etiquette. This simply means the use of good manners in online communication such as e-mail, forums, blogs, and social networking sites to name a few. It is important to use netiquette because communication online is non-verbal.

Net Etiquette are the rules that have developed as people have begun to communicate and interact on the Internet. The following are some good net etiquette rules to follow: Before you join in a newsgroup or discussion board, always check that your questions are relevant to the group.

Definition. Short for network etiquette, the code of conduct regarding acceptable online behavior.


Netiquette is a combination of the words network and etiquette and is defined as a set of rules for acceptable online behavior. Similarly, online ethics focuses on the acceptable use of online resources in an online social environment.

Netiquette is a combination of the words network and etiquette and is defined as a set of rules for acceptable online behavior. Similarly, online ethics focuses on the acceptable use of online resources in an online social environment.

Both phrases are frequently interchanged and are often combined with the concept of a ’netizen’ which itself is a contraction of the words internet and citizen and refers to both a person who uses the internet to participate in society, and an individual who has accepted the responsibility of using the internet in productive and socially responsible ways.

What Does Good Web Etiquette Look Like?

Underlying this overall concept of socially responsible internet use are a few core pillars, though the details underneath each pillar are still subject to debate.

For Society:

• Recognizing that the internet is an extension of society. The internet isn’t a new world in which anything goes, but rather, a new dimension of the world around us.
• Applying the same standards online as we do in public. In simple terms, this means that the values society has in place against hate speech and bigotry, child exploitation, and child pornography, copyright violations and other forms of theft, remain intact. Values around courtesy, kindness, openness, and treating others with the same respect we wish to receive should also be adhered to.
• Refusing to empower abuse and harassment while online. Accepting that the laws which are currently in place to protect the rights and dignity of citizens apply online and that where needed, laws are updated to reflect these rights in the extended environment. Theft, harassment, and bullying while online is still theft, harassment, and bullying, period.
• Acknowledging cultural differences. Even when national boundaries no longer apply, cultural respect and tolerance should remain. This requires finding a way to accept that the social values and norms of some netizens will not be the social values and norms of all netizens.

For Businesses:

For companies, being a good netizen, applying online ethics, and using netiquette include:

• Respecting rights of privacy for offline employees. Information possessed by citizens in their offline interactions should be respected.
• Maintaining transparency in information policies. By taking action so that consumers can easily and quickly understand how that company is using their information and protecting them from harm, companies can provide users with a clear means of ownership and self-determination as to what is, and isn’t shared about them, which strengthens the consumer relationship.

Most internet users automatically apply the same responsible respectful behavior online as they do in every other environment and by nature apply netiquette an online ethics, and are good netizens. The minority that fails to apply societal values in some or any environment- including the internet- are quickly identified as exceptions to be dealt with on a social, or criminal level. When you choose to partner with technology companies, especially for something as important as internet security, it’s imperative you ensure that the partner shares your understanding of what it means to act ethically online.

“Netiquette” refers to rules of etiquette that apply to online communication.

Follow these 15 rules of netiquette to make sure you sound respectful, polite, and knowledgeable when you post to your class’s online discussion boards.

1. Before posting your question to a discussion board, check if anyone has asked it already and received a reply. Just as you wouldn’t repeat a topic of discussion right after it happened in real life, don’t do that in discussion boards either.
2. Stay on topic – Don’t post irrelevant links, comments, thoughts, or pictures.
3. Don’t type in ALL CAPS! If you do, it will look like you’re screaming.
4. Don’t write anything that sounds angry or sarcastic, even as a joke, because without hearing your tone of voice, your peers might not realize you’re joking.
5. Always remember to say “Please” and “Thank you” when soliciting help from your classmates.
6. Respect the opinions of your classmates. If you feel the need to disagree, do so respectfully and acknowledge the valid points in your classmate’s argument. Acknowledge that others are entitled to have their own perspective on the issue.
7. If you reply to a question from a classmate, make sure your answer is accurate! If you’re not 100% sure when the paper is due, DO NOT GUESS! Otherwise, you could really mess things up for your classmates and they will not appreciate it.
8. If you ask a question and many people respond, summarize all answers and post that summary to benefit your whole class.
9. Be brief. If you write a long dissertation in response to a simple question, it’s unlikely that anyone will spend the time to read through it all.
10. Don’t badmouth others or call them stupid. You may disagree with their ideas, but don’t mock the person.
11. If you refer to something your classmate said earlier in the discussion, quote just a few key lines from their post so that others wont have to go back and figure out which post you’re referring to.
12. Before asking a question, check the class FAQs or search the internet to see if the answer is obvious or easy to find.
13. Check the most recent comments before you reply to an older comment, since the issue might have already been resolved or opinions may have changed.
14. Be forgiving. If your classmate makes a mistake, don’t badger him or her for it. Just let it go – it happens to the best of us.
15. Run a spelling and grammar check before posting anything to the discussion board. It only takes a minute, and can make the difference between sounding like a fool and sounding knowledgeable.

Netiquette" refers to Internet etiquette. This simply means the use of good manners in online communication such as e-mail, forums, blogs, and social networking sites to name a few. It is important to use netiquette because communication online is non-verbal

The golden rule states that you should do unto others as you would have them do unto you. In terms of netiquette, this means that you should not use improper web conduct that you would not appreciate from others

A post or email message that expresses criticism or a strong opinion. What does the phrase "lurk before you leap" mean? Familiarize yourself with a discussion group before becoming an active participant. By lurking you familiarize yourself with rules, mailing lists, and the kinds of topics being discussed.

Netiquette

"Netiquette" refers to Internet etiquette. This simply means the use of good manners in online communication such as e-mail, forums, blogs, and social networking sites to name a few. It is important to use netiquette because communication online is non-verbal. Most often online communication consists of reading something someone else has typed. This type of communication does not allow each person to see facial expressions, body language, or hear intonation. Because of this, messages can often be misinterpreted. By following netiquette, online communication becomes clearer. Especially in business and career related online communications netiquette should be used to ensure that correct spelling, grammar, and punctuation are put in place to project professionalism. Netiquette also includes the use of emoticons (such as :) :( ;) and others) to explain an emotion. In e-mail, netiquette means not flooding someone's inbox with forwarded messages or spam mail. Following netiquette will help you to maintain and establish positive online relationships as well as develop a positive online reputation.

WebWise Team | 10th October 2012

As you become involved with online discussion groups, you will find that each group has its own accepted rules of behaviour. Many of these have come about because of technical limitations.

For example, on an email discussion list - where not everyone may have seen past messages - it's considered polite to quote from a message you're replying to, so your response has context. It's also considered polite to keep those quotes short and relevant. On a web-based forum, however, where the original messages are visible to all, quoting is often unnecessary.

The basic rules

Refrain from personal abuse. You may express robust disagreement with what someone says, but don't call them names or threaten them with personal violence.

Don't spam. That is, don't repeatedly post the same advertisement for products or services. Most sites have strict and specific rules about who is allowed to post ads and what kind of ads they are.

Write clearly and succinctly. On a site that has many non-native English speakers, avoid using slang they may not understand.

Remember that your posts are public. They can be read by your partner, your children, your parents, or your employer.
Stay on-topic, especially when you're new. Don't post about football in a hair-care forum or about hair care in a gardening forum!
Don't expect other people to do your homework for you. 

If you're looking for technical help, for example, don't ask questions you could easily answer yourself by reading the manual or online help provided with the product. 

When you do ask for help, include details of what attempts you've made to solve the problem. It will save time and also show people that you are making an effort to help yourself.
Do not post copyrighted material to which you do not own the rights. 

Sites vary in how strict they are about this, but as well as facing the possibility of legal action by the rights holder, you may also get the site sued.
The site's owner, perhaps assisted by one or more moderators, has the final say in enforcing the rules.


Helpful hints


Almost every site has a page for newcomers that describes its rules of good behaviour. Usually this page will appear as the terms and conditions you must agree to when you open your account. However, sites may have additional information. You should read all of it.

Check to see if the site has a FAQ (frequently asked questions) section. FAQs typically include questions that have been asked and answered hundreds of times. If you have any queries about site protocol, you will most likely discover the dos and don’ts here.

Finally, it's always wise to see what the discussion group have been talking about for a week or two before you begin to post your messages. Online, as in real life, it can take a long time to get past a bad first impression.

Okay, so the internet police won’t come and get you and the bush people aren’t peeking in your windows with binoculars, but there definitely are some great rules for internet etiquette that will make your online experience more enjoyable.

1. When typing never write in all capital letters. That is shouting. People don’t like it when you shout at them in person. And they sure don’t like when you shout at them on the net!

2. Don’t plagiarize. Someone spent a long time coming up with their content. When you borrow something from someone, give them the credit. Site their name or their site. Give the site when you have gotten your information.

3. Use proper quotes and always use the whole quote. Don’t take quotes out of context and don’t be selective about which part of the quote you want to use.

4. Don’t gossip and keep personal information personal. Don’t tell stories that you don’t know for a fact to be true. And often, just because it’s true, doesn’t mean that it needs to be repeated.

5. Don’t steal those photographs off the web even if they are a perfect fit for what you need. Chances are they are copyrighted and someone spent a long time putting that together. Get permission and give credit where credit is due.

6. Watch your language. No potty mouths.

7. Be patient with internet newbies. Know that they are just learning like you did once upon a time.


8. No spamming. Remember that spam is unwanted electronic messages or sending the same electronic message over and over. This can get you in a lot of trouble on some sites and as a general rule it just irritates everyone else.

9. If you are using a header (such as in an email) make sure your content really pertains to the header. You must admit it would really stink if the header said something about football, for example, and the email was really about your newest and greatest business idea. Just stay on topic and the problem is solved.

10. Avoid overuse of emoticons. You know... those cute little smiley faces. They really lose their cuteness when overused and tend to irritate people.

Following these simple guidelines will keep your internet connections happy and allow for more “social” interactions. Just like in face to face dealings, internet users love other users with manners. Manners go a long way in saying who you are and what you are.

LEVELS OF GATE KEEPING

A gatekeeper is a person who controls access to something, for example via a city gate. In the late 20th century the term came into metaphorical use, referring to individuals who decide whether a given message will be distributed by a mass

A news editor selects stories for publication based on his or her organization's specific criteria, e.g., importance and relevance to their readership. For example, a presidential resignation would be on the front page of a newspaper but likely not a celebritybreak-up (unless the paper was of the gossip variety).

LEVELS OF GATE KEEPING 

WHAT IS GATE KEEPING?
Gate-keeping is the process through which information is filtered for dissemination, whether for publication, broadcasting, the Internet, or some other mode of communication.

Gate-keeping theory is the nexus between two inarguable facts: events occur everywhere all of the time and the news media cannot cover all of them. And so, when an event occurs, someone has to decide whether and how to pass the information to another person, such as a friend, an official, or even a journalist.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL INFORMATION

 Digital describes electronic technology that generates, stores, and processes data in terms of two states:

 positive and non-positive.

What is Digital Information
1.
Machine language; data stored in zeros and ones.
2.
Information that is in digital, electronic form and is stored, manipulated, and displayed by computational tools.

 Digital information is stored using a series of ones and zeros. Computers are digital machines because they can only read information as on or off -- 1 or 0. This method of computation, also known as the binary system, may seem rather simplistic, but can be used to represent incredible amounts of data.

Digital technology is primarily used with new physical communications media, such as satellite and fiber optic transmission. A modem is used to convert the digital information in your computer to analog signals for your phone line and to convert analog phone signals to digital information for your computer.

Digital data, in information theory and information systems, is the discrete, discontinuous representation of information or works. ... The term is most commonly used in computing and electronics, especially where real-worldinformation is converted to binary numeric form as in digital audio and digitalphotography.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL INFORMATION 

1: CONTENT DIVERSITY

2: INTERACTIVITY

3: COMPACT

4: TRANSFERABLE

5: COMPRESS-ABLE

6:RETRIEVABLE

7:MULTIMEDIA

8:INSTANT AND FAST

9:ACCESSIBLE

10:IMPARTIAL

11: STORE-ABLE

12:UNIQUE IN ITS NATURE

(IN TERM OF STORING AND REBOOTING)

Relevant characteristics of digital information



Digital information is very different from its physical counterpart. Physical information has a fixed position in place and time. This is not the case with digital information, which can be:
rapidly duplicated and easily distributed
e.g. a message posted via social media is reposted elsewhere by friends or an email sent to a list of recipients within a very short time frame
stored in multiple locations
e.g. a photo can be stored simultaneously on a laptop, a smartphone and in the Cloud
created and communicated automatically
e.g. a smartphone can synchronise emails with another device or an online service
stored with varying levels of 'discoverability'
e.g. image files that can only be accessed using a password or other method of authentication.



DIGITAL INFORMATION CAN BE COMMUNICATED RAPIDLY


The 'viral' nature of digital communication enables information to spread rapidly and reach a wide audience. This can make it very difficult to know who has received the information or how it will spread further. It also requires any action to minimise harm that could be caused by this communication to be taken quickly.

DIGITAL INFORMATION IS HARD TO PERMANENTLY DELETE


Once digital information or items are created it can be difficult, if not impossible, to permanently delete all copies. For example digital information can be:
stored on a range of digital devices such as smartphones, laptops and internet servers as it is communicated. For example an email or chat message.copied and communicated automatically or to a schedule making it difficult to know what information is stored where. For example, a smartphone automatically synchronising stored information with a laptop computer or to the 'Cloud'.
retrieved or restored from the archive or trash after deletion using easily accessible tools.
temporarily stored on a device. For example, a device will download information to display a website and then can delete it when the web browser is closed.

DIGITAL INFORMATION CAN BE REMOTELY ACCESSED


Typically, transmitting digital devices such as smartphones or laptops can be accessed remotely via another internet connection. Similarly, the content of a website can be remotely accessed and edited. Example of actions that can be carried out remotely include:
deleting, adding or editing information stored on a digital device or web page
accessing a device's location services to find its specific location, or
turning on a device's web camera and using it to record.

OPED. editorials /Key features of a newspaper article

WHAT IS OP-ED

An op-ed, short for "opposite the editorial page" or "opinion editorial", is a written prose piece typically published by a newspaper or magazine which expresses the opinion of an author usually not affiliated with the publication's editorial board.

How to Write an Op-Ed Article

Track the news and jump at opportunities. 

Timing is essential. ...
Limit the article to 750 words. Shorter is even better. ...
Make a single point — well. ...
Put your main point on top. ...
Tell readers why they should care. ...
Offer specific recommendations. ...
Showing is better than discussing. ...8:Embrace your personal voice

.What is op ed format?

An op-ed piece derives its name from originally having appeared opposite the editorial page in a newspaper. Today, the term is used more widely to represent a column that represents the strong, informed and focused opinion of the writer on an issue of relevance to a targeted audience.

NEWS PAPER BODY 

1: EDITORIAL BOARD 

2: EDITORIAL GUIDELINES

3: NEWS EDITORIALS

4:POLICY EDITORIALS

5:SOCIAL EDITORIALS

6: SPECIAL EDITORIALS 

1: EDITORIAL BOARD

The editorial board is a group of experts, usually at a publication, who dictate the tone and direction the publication's editorial policy will take.
Editorial Boards. The editorial board (sometimes known as an advisory board) typically consists of a group of prominent people in the journal's field. Having an editorial board is very important: they act as ambassadors for journals.

Editorial Board Structure

Every journal depends upon its editor(s) and board for its success.

One essential task for every editorial office is to develop good working relationships with their colleagues and to assist them in their editorial office tasks. It is also important to stay informed of changes to the editorial board and to ensure that updates are made to editor and editorial board listings online and in print. The editorial office administrator is often a key contact for new editors and/or board members who may need assistance in learning the journal’s workflow and the editorial office system.

Editor-in-Chief/Editor

The editor-in-chief is the lead editor and ultimately responsible (usually by a contractual arrangement) for the academic content of the journal. His/her primary responsibilities usually include:

• Directing the overall strategy of the journal (in cooperation with the publisher and the society, as applicable).
• Reviewing and deciding upon submitted manuscripts to ensure sustainable and timely copy flow.
• Acting as an ambassador for the journal, commissioning content and fielding submission enquires as appropriate.

Associate Editors

Depending on the size of a journal and its topic breadth, a journal may have one or more associate editors. The editor-in-chief delegates work to these associates and may deputize some decisions to them. The exact role of the associate editor will vary from journal to journal, and manuscripts will often be assigned to them based on the topic or country of origin.

Section Editors

A journal may also appoint section editors, who are responsible for reviewing only specific manuscript types, such as book reviews or brief reports. Often, these editors make final decisions on their assigned manuscripts, but the editor-in-chief may wish to review decisions for all sections.

Editorial Board

The composition of a journal’s editorial board may have various objectives:

• to bring together a range of key individuals within the field who can advise on journal strategy.
• to act as a ready team of potential reviewers with an active interest in the success of the journal.
• to add credibility to the journal and/or celebrate important experts in the field. (in this case the editorial board member’s position is largely honorific).

Individuals should be made aware of their responsibilities when invited to join the board.

Editorial Board Meetings

Members of the editorial board meet periodically to evaluate the journal’s health and to discuss overall goals. The frequency of these editorial board meetings varies depending on the specific needs of a journal. Attendees of the meeting also vary from journal to journal.

2: EDITORIAL GUIDELINES

Definition: The guidelines and policy statements set forth by the editor(s) or editorial board of a publication.

Editorial policy is the set of guidelines by which the news organization operates. It includes the news organization's attitudes toward its community and aids editors in making editorial decisions. The editorial board of The Appalachian makes recommendations on all editorial policy decisions.

Editorial guidelinesdefine a publication. It sets the publication apart from the others in the market. In fact, it is the identity and personality of a publication

3: NEWS EDITORIALS

An editorial is an article that presents the newspaper's opinion on an issue. It reflects the majority vote of the editorial board, the governing body of the newspaper made up of editors and business managers. ... In essence, an editorialis an opinionated news story.

what is the difference between news and  editorial 

Ideally, news articles are unbiased and objective. They present facts or report other people's opinions, such as those of witnesses or experts. In general, a news article is supposed to be neutral and an editorial is supposed to be opinionated.

4:POLICY EDITORIALS

when editorials are written to protect some governmental policies or to influence people in creating a certain view point on any particular issue or policy of any national interest.

5:SOCIAL EDITORIALS

any editorial which raise the question over an any existing social issue 

6: SPECIAL EDITORIALS 

when any special and new incident happens and to aware people special editorials are written on that particular incident or happening.

basic purposes of editorials are 

1: to influence

2: to inform

3: to educate 

4:to stimulate thinking






Key features of a newspaper article

Headline – usually only four or five words. It tries to attract the interest of the reader by telling them what the story is about, in a short and interesting way.


What is the headline for your article?

How many words are in the headline?
By-line – who wrote the article

Who wrote your article?



Introduction – It will set the scene and summarise the main points of the article: who, what, when, where.


Can you identify these important points in your article?



- Who is the article about?
- What happened?
- When did it happen?
- Where did it happen?


Body – provides more detail about the event, in particular it answers the questions how and why.
What else do you know now?

Quotes – sometimes articles will include what a person (like an eye-witness or an expert) has said. These will be in speech marks.


Does you article have quotes? If so,



- What was said?




- Who said it?


- How are they related to the event?

Photograph and caption – sometimes articles have a photograph, and a sentence explaining the photograph


Does your article have a photograph? What does it show – describe exactly what you see?


What does the caption say?



Headline – usually only four or five words. It tries to attract the interest of the reader by telling them what the story is about, in a short and interesting way.



By-line – who wrote the article.



Introduction – It will set the scene and summarise the main points of the article:

who, what, when, where.



Body – provides more detail about the event, in particular it answers the questions how and why.



Quotes – sometimes articles will include what a person (like an eye-witness or an expert) has said. These will be in speech marks.



Photograph and caption – sometimes articles have a photograph, and a sentence explaining the photograph.

ROLE OF PERCEPTION IN MASS COMMUNICATION

ROLE OF PERCEPTION IN MASS COMMUNICATION 

perception is defined as the process by which we interpret sensory data. sensory data is transferred to the mind in the form of sensations through our five senses . The mind interprets based on our past experiences, culture , brought up and present feelings. The interpretations by mind converts the sensations into judgements which become perceptions.

so basically its as follows 

SENSATIONS 
| |
V

JUDGEMENTS

| |
V
PERCEPTIONS

SENSATIONS: 
any information we get from our five senses.

Definition of sensation.

 1: a mental process (such as seeing, hearing, or smelling) resulting from the immediate external stimulation of a sense organ often as distinguished from a conscious awareness of the sensory process — compare perception. b : awareness (as of heat or pain) due to stimulation of a sense organ.

Definitions of sensation -

 a physical feeling or perception resulting from something that happens to or comes into contact with the body, a widespread reaction.

a general feeling caused by something that happens to you, especially a feeling that you cannot describe exactly:

feeling in your body resulting from something that happens or is done to it, or the ability to feel as the result of touch:

JUDGEMENTS

what ever information we get from our 5 senses, these senses give message to mind where mind then works on messages and judge them according to our past experiences.

DEFINATIONS 

an act or instance of judging. the ability to judge, make a decision, or form an opinion objectively, authoritatively, and wisely, especially in matters affecting action; good sense; discretion: a man of sound judgment.

A judgment is an opinion that you have or express after thinking

the ability to make considered decisions or come to sensible conclusions, a misfortune or calamity viewed as a divine punishment.

a decision that you make, or an opinion that you have, after considering all the facts in a situation:

PERCEPTIONS 

whatever we construct in our mind through thinking and judging according to our past experiences and then in conclusion we make perception . our view point is based on our judgement attitude.

perception of everyone could be different

it is not necessary  that any intended message could deliver the complete perception of the message because every individual is different from other. 

Perception is the processing, interpreting, selecting and organizing of information. Perception's effect on the communication process is all about how the same message can be interpreted differently by different people.

Key Points
Perception refers to the set of processes we use to make sense of the different stimuli we’re presented with. Our perceptions are based on how we interpret different sensations

.
The perceptual process begins with receiving stimuli from the environment and ends with our interpretation of those stimuli. This process is typically unconscious and happens hundreds of thousands of times a day.

When we attend to or select one specific thing in our environment, it becomes the attended stimulus.

Organization of stimuli happens by way of neural processes; this starts with our sensory receptors (touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing), and is transmitted to our brains, where we organize the information we receive.

After we receive and organize stimuli, we can interpret those stimuli, which simply means that we take the information and turn it into something that we can categorize.
Key Terms
percept: A mental representation of a stimulus

Perception Process: A sequence of steps that involves, sequentially: selection of stimuli in the environment, organization of that information, and interpretation of those stimuli.

Perception: The organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information

The Perception Process

The perceptual process is a sequence of steps that begins with stimuli in the environment and ends with our interpretation of those stimuli. This process is typically unconscious and happens hundreds of thousands of times a day. An unconscious process is simply one that happens without awareness or intention. When you open your eyes, you do not need to tell your brain to interpret the light falling onto your retinas from the object in front of you as “computer” because this has happened unconsciously. When you step out into a chilly night, your brain does not need to be told “cold” because the stimuli trigger the processes and categories automatically.

Selection

The world around us is filled with an infinite number of stimuli that we might attend to, but our brains do not have the resources to pay attention to everything. Thus, the first step of perception is the (usually unconscious, but sometimes intentional) decision of what to attend to. Depending on the environment, and depending on us as individuals, we might focus on a familiar stimulus or something new. When we attend to one specific thing in our environment—whether it is a smell, a feeling, a sound, or something else entirely—it becomes the attended stimulus.

Organization

Once we have chosen to attend to a stimulus in the environment (consciously or unconsciously, though usually the latter), the choice sets off a series of reactions in our brain. This neural process starts with the activation of our sensory receptors (touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing). The receptors transduce the input energy into neural activity, which is transmitted to our brains, where we construct a mental representation of the stimulus (or, in most cases, the multiple related stimuli) called a percept. An ambiguous stimulus may be translated into multiple percepts, experienced randomly, one at a time, in what is called “multistable perception.”

Interpretation

After we have attended to a stimulus, and our brains have received and organized the information, we interpret it in a way that makes sense using our existing information about the world. Interpretation simply means that we take the information that we have sensed and organized and turn it into something that we can categorize. For instance, in the Rubin’s Vase illusion mentioned earlier, some individuals will interpret the sensory information as “vase,” while some will interpret it as “faces.” This happens unconsciously thousands of times a day. By putting different stimuli into categories, we can better understand and react to the world around us.

pak us relations

United States of America remains one of the first countries to have established diplomatic ties with Pakistan. Although the relationship dates back to October 20, 1947, it can be extrapolated that the relations have been based strictly on military and economic support.

During the initial years of Pakistan, the country had the options of building allegiance with Soviet Union or United States, however, Pakistan opted for the latter.

1950-1953: Pakistan’s first prime minister, Liaquat Ali Khan visited United States to meet president Harry S Truman. It is alleged that during PM Khan’s first visit to US, president Truman requested Pakistan’s premier to let the CIA formulate a base in Pakistan, strictly to keep an eye on the activities of Soviet Union—a request which was not granted by Khan.

Throughout the course of these years many officials from Pakistansuch as commander-in-chief Ayub Khan, foreign minister Zafrullah Khan, foreign secretary Ikramullah, finance minister Ghulam Muhammad, defence secretary Sikander Mirza and special envoy Mir Laiq Ali visited US, aiming to receive financial aids from the country.

1954: Pakistan signed Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement with the United States in May. Under the agreement, many Pakistani soldiers went to United States for training whereas US also established a Military Assistance Advisory Group (Maag) in Rawalpindi.

1956: President Dwight Eisenhower requested prime minister Suhrawardy to lease Peshawar Air Station to the American Army for keeping an eye on soviet Union and its ballistic missile programme. The request was granted by the prime minister.

1960s: During the decade, the pro-American sentiments in Western side of Pakistan were at an all time high. However, the military and financial assistance was directed more towards West Pakistan, which caused an uproar and feeling of distrust in East Pakistan.

Ayub Khan allowed United States to fly spy mission to Soviet Union from Pakistan’s territory and accompanied by his daughter visited United States of America.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R7HwKD3XGUU

United States increased the amount of aid Pakistan was designated to receive from the consortium of Pakistan, half a billion dollars of which were lost in 1965’s Indo-Pakistan war—war staged to cause a rebel in Indian occupied Kashmir. The war also led US to place economical and military embargoes on Pakistan, which resulted in an economic collapse.

1971-1974: Being an important ally for US during the cold war, United States supported Pakistan, despite the arms embargo. Pakistan also assisted president Richard Nixon in making his first visit to Peoples’ Republic of China.

During 1971’s war, US is speculated to have provided Pakistan with arms and military aid, in order to discourage India from penetrating further into the cities of Pakistan because losing Pakistan meant losing an important ally in the soviet war.

Moreover, as per the elections result, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was elected as the president of Pakistan and later on became the prime minister in 1974.

Although Bhutto was considered a socialist, he was a close and respected friend of president Nixon, which went in Pakistan’s favour.

1976-1979: President Jimmy Carter, an anti-socialist, won the presidential election of US and announced to seek a ban on nuclear weapons.

Bhutto lost the favours he enjoyed whilst Nixon was US president as Carter did not appreciate his policies and tightened already placed embargoes on Pakistan. However, Bhutto managed to procure items to enhance his atomic bomb project. President Carter and his administration allegedly threatened Bhutto to disrupt the process of atomic proliferation and research to which the latter did not agree, leading to his differences with the Americans.

1979-1988: During Zia ul Haq’s regime, Pakistan and United States enjoyed a warm and congenial relationship, which was primarily based on military ties and advancements. During the decade, US, along with CIA and ISI, launched billions of dollars worth of operations to prevent Soviet forces from further advancing into the region.

It is during this period that United States granted billions of dollars to Pakistan in the name of military and economical aid. By the year 1981, Pakistan was discussing a $3.2-billion aid package with United States and in 1987 Pakistan became the second largest recipient of aid after Israel.

However, by the end of General Zia’s regime, Congress adopted Pressler amendment. The amendment banned major military and economical aid to Pakistan unless the state was able to justify and provide sufficient evidence that the funds are not being used for nuclear proliferation.

However it is alleged that although Pakistan disclosed that it could enrich uranium and assemble a nuclear device in 1984 and 1987 respectively, the sanctions were not imposed till 1990.

1990: US, under the Pressler amendment, imposed sanctions on Pakistan, as the country by then had lost its strategic importance in soviet war.

1992: The relations between US and Pakistan plummeted further when US ambassador Nicholas Platt, warned Pakistan of being included into state sponsors of terrorism list, in case it continued to support militants causing trouble in India.

1995: Benazir Bhutto visited United States and requested president Bill Clinton to lift the embargoes on Pakistan and launch a joint operation to eradicate militancy from the region. As a reaction to Bhutto’s proposal, Brown amendment, which provided for the delivery of $368 million of military equipment purchased but not received by Pakistan before the imposition of Pressler amendment sanctions in 1990, was passed; however, the sanctions on arms were not lifted.

1998: Prime minister Nawaz Sharif conducted nuclear test in Balochistan, in retaliation to similar tests conducted by India, which invited the wrath of Clinton’s administration on both the countries. President Clinton imposed sanctions under Glenn amendment on India as well as Pakistan.

Glenn amendment included suspension of aid, including economic development assistance, credits and credit guarantees by the US government, US bank loans to the governments of India and Pakistan, loans from international financial institutions, such as the IMF and World Bank, and exports of dual-use nuclear or missile items.

However, in July of 1998, US lifted the sanctions on both the countries for purchasing agricultural products from US farmers. Later in the year President Clinton exercised his waiver on lifting restrictions on the activities of US banks in Pakistan.

2001: After the 9/11 attacks and US’s invasion in various countries to eradicate militancy, Pakistan became one of the most important strategic allies for United States.

Initially Pakistan tried to strike a negotiation deal with Taliban and al Qaeda members to handover Osama bin Laden to American authorities. However, when negotiations failed, Pakistan allowed American army to use its military bases for launching attacks on Afghan soil.

However, President Pervez Musharraf confessed that the country had no option but to support United States as it had threatened Pakistan of “bombing it into stone age” if it did not join the fight against al Qaeda.

Simultaneously in 2001, US officials introduced a bill to lift all the sanctions, previously imposed on Pakistan under Pressler and Glenn amendments.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tVo9JorURws&feature=fvwrel

2003: United States officially forgave $1 billion worth of loan it had granted to Pakistan in a goodwill gesture and appreciation for Pakistan’s cooperation.

2004: President George Bush officially declared Pakistan as a non-Nato ally granting it the authority to purchase strategic and advanced military equipments.

Since 2004, US army has launched various drone strikes on the north-western side of the country. The drone strikes aim to target Pakistani Taliban and supporters of al Qaeda, however, the strikes have also resulted in latge civilian deaths and caused much opposition from Pakistanis.

2007: A report was issued in which Pakistan was accused of using aid money provided by US to Pakistan for its cooperation on war on terror, for strengthening its defence against India.

2008: The trust, on both sides, has been missing since the war on terror started as US on several occasions has accused Pakistan Army to tip the Taliban and pro-Taliban factions off on US operations.

In the June of 2008, an air strike by the US Army killed 11 paramilitary soldiers of Pakistan Army Frontier Corps, along with eight Taliban. The strike and deaths instigated a fierce reaction from Pakistani command calling the act to have shaken the foundations of mutual trust and cooperation.

2009: President Musharraf confessed that the billions of dollars of aid that Pakistan received from United States, for being a partner in war against terror, were diverted and channelled in order to build better defence mechanism against India.

The famous Kerry-Lugar Bill, which invited much controversy and criticism, was passed in the October of 2009. The bill entailed the approval of granting $7.5 billion of non-military aid, if the command of the country accepted certain condition. The bill clearly showed US’s distrust in Pakistan’s military command and considered Pakistani Taliban more threatening than Afghan Taliban, amongst many other essential points.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N1udYqw2Ey4&feature=plcp

2010: In the beginning of the year, Pakistan Army in a joint operation with US intelligence agencies captured Mullah Abdul Ghani Baradar, a famous Taliban commander, from the tribal belt of Pakistan. The success of the operation was hailed by the United States and Pakistan was praised for its utmost cooperation.

2011: In the beginning of 2011, Raymond Davis, a CIA agent in Pakistan killed two Pakistani men in Lahore, claiming that they came to rob him. Davis was taken into custody for killing civilians, however, American officials claimed that he was entitled to diplomatic immunity and must be released immediately.

Raymond Davis was later acquitted of the murder charges and was sent to United States.

In the May of 2011, Osama bin Laden was killed in an operation conducted by US Navy Seals in Abbottabad, Pakistan.

President Barrack Obama claimed that the information pertaining to the operation conducted in Abbottabad was not shared with Pakistan Army. However, ISI claimed that the operation was conductedjointly, a claim which was blatantly denied by President Asif Ali Zardari.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R9i4m_ohTTw&feature=relmfu

Since the war on terror started in 2001, Pakistan has received an estimated amount of $20 billion from United States; however, in the wake of OBL’s raid US withheld $800 million of aid to Pakistan.

US-Pakistan relations plummeted again when 24 Pakistani soldiers died in an air strike by the US Army. Afghan and US officials claimed that the firing was a result of the attack launched from the Pakistani side of the border, however, the Pakistani military and government denied the claims.

As a result of the attack, Pakistani government ordered US army to evacuate Salala air base which was being used to launch offensive on Taliban and militants. Moreover, the government also halted Nato supplies for United Sates.

2012: Since the beginning of 2012, various political parties along with the military command of the country, met and held discussions on restoring Nato supplies. Diplomats from United States also tried to reduce the friction.

Prime Minister Yousuf Raza Gilani said that the supplies were blocked without any pressure and will be restored with consensus.

Moreover, Nato Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen urged Pakistan to reopen Nato ground supply routes to Afghanistan. However, Rasmussen also said that Pakistan had not been invited to the crucial 25th Nato summit to be held in May in Chicago.

Simultaneously, US Senator John Kerry, a leading proponent of US aid for Pakistan, said that Pakistan needs to be more cooperative, in order to eliminate Taliban sanctuaries from the country.

However, top Pakistani leaders decided to meet on May 15,  in order to discuss ending a blockade of foreign military supply routes into Afghanistan and repairing US relations, signaling a rapprochement ahead of a Nato summit.

Simultaneously, in a sudden shift in events, Nato, on May 15, said that it will invite President Zardari to the alliance’s summit in Chicago, after the country’s foreign minister proposed reopening its Afghan border to Nato military supplies. President Zardari accepted the invitation and decided to attend the summit.

However, on May 18, US lawmakers in the House of Representatives debating the National Defence Authorisation Act voted 412-1 for an amendment that could block up to $650 million in proposed payments to Pakistan unless Islamabad lets coalition forces resume shipment of war supplies across its territory.

However, on the same day, four containers laden with supplies for the US Embassy in Kabul crossed into Afghanistan from Pakistan via Torkham border post.

A local official while confirming supplies to the US Embassy via Torkham said he could not say when the cargo had been transported.

“Pakistan government has never put restriction on the transportation of supplies for the diplomatic missions, including the American Embassy in Kabul,” a senior official, who was dealing with the matter, said.

“Ban on the transportation of Nato supplies is still intact.”

Simultaneously President Zardari arrived in Washington on May 19 to attend the Nato summit in Chicago. However, both the countries were unable to strike a conclusive deal on the restoration of Nato supplies as the summit ended.

In a fresh warning to Pakistan, a Senate panel on May 23 approved a foreign aid budget for next year that slashes US assistance to Islamabad by more than half and threatens further reductions if it fails to open supply routes to Nato forces in Afghanistan.

Sen Patrick Leahy, a Democrat and the chairman of the subcommittee, and the panel’s top Republican, Sen Lindsey Graham, said money for Pakistan was cut 58 per cent as lawmakers questioned Islamabad’s commitment to the fight against terrorism.

Moreover, the Senate Appropriations Committee, on May 24, voted to cut aid to Pakistan by a symbolic $33 million – $1 million for each year of jail time handed to Shakil Afridi, a Pakistani doctor who allegedly assisted the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in finding Osama bin Laden.

However, the United States agreed to reimburse $1.18 billion or almost 75 per cent of the claims Pakistan has submitted for the expenses incurred in the fight against militants along the Afghan border.

The approval showed that despite increased tensions, the US financial assistance to Pakistan has continued although it is becoming increasingly difficult to get congressional support for helping Pakistan.

Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta, on June 7, said that the United States was running out of patience with Pakistan over safe havens of insurgents who attack US troops across the border in Afghanistan.

Panetta spoke after talks with Afghan Defence Minister Abdul Rahim Wardak on the latest leg of an Asian tour that has taken him to India, but not Islamabad in a sign of how dire US-Pakistan relations are.

On June 8, US Assistant Defence Secretary Peter Lavoy arrived in Islamabad, in a fresh attempt to bring an end to a six-month blockade on Nato supplies, crossing into Afghanistan.

However, on June 11, the United States withdrew negotiators from Pakistan after talks failed to produce a deal on reopening vital Nato supply routes into Afghanistan. Sherry Rehman, Pakistan’s ambassador to the United States, still sounded optimistic and said that the return of an American negotiating team from Islamabad, where it worked with Pakistani counterparts on revival of the Nato supply routes, does not represent an institutional US pullout.

Moreover,  Panetta ruled out an apology over an air strike last year that killed 24 Pakistani soldiers and badly set back efforts to improve US-Pakistani ties, saying it was “time to move on.”

Gen John Allen, the top commander of American and Nato forces in Afghanistan, visited Pakistan on Wednesday, amidst heightened tensions between the two countries.

The agenda of the talks remained to restore Nato supply routes and cross-border attacks launched on Pakistani soil from Afghanistan.

Pakistan, on July 3, agreed to reopen key supply routes into Afghanistan ending a bitter stand-off after US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said she was sorry for the loss of life in a botched air raid.

A US official said that as part of the deal Washington will release about $1.1 billion to the Pakistani military from a US “coalition support fund” designed to reimburse Pakistan for the cost of counter-insurgency operations.

Moreover, US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said on July 8 that the United States and Pakistan were putting past tensions behind them to focus on the future, after meeting her Pakistani counterpart Hina Rabbani Khar in Tokyo.

It was the first meeting between Clinton and Khar since the two countries last week struck a deal to re-open supply routes, closed for seven months following a US attack in which 24 Pakistani soldiers died.

President Barack Obama, on July 17, named Richard G Olson to be the US ambassadors to Pakistan, tasking him with shaping highly sensitive relationships after US troops pull out.

The US commander in Afghanistan Gen John Allen visited GHQ to hold talks in Pakistan on August 2 for the first time since Islamabad ended a seven-month blockade on Nato supplies destined for the 10-year war effort.

Moreover, Pakistan received $1.1 billion dollars from the United States for its fight against militants, the first installment of its kind since December 2010 on the same day.

The agenda of the meeting was focused on improving security along the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan.

Pakistan’s Ambassador to the United States Sherry Rehman met with Congressman Dan Burton on August 3, a Republican from Indiana, and discussed ways to enhance Pakistan-US relationship.

The United States and Pakistan reached an understanding on joint operations against the Haqqani network on August 5, However a joint decision could not be agreed upon.

The sources said the issue of cross-border attacks, by the Haqqani network into Afghanistan and by TTP into Pakistan, was discussed in a series of meetings between senior US and Pakistani officials during the week.

The US State Department confirmed on August 23 that an American diplomat had a meeting with Pakistani officials at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Islamabad as Pakistan lodged its first formal protest with the United States over drone strikes.