Effects theories continued (Bullet theory, Cultivation theory, Spiral of Silence, Media Hegemony)

 Effects theories continued (Bullet theory, Cultivation theory, Spiral of Silence, Media Hegemony)
Introduction
In continuation of the Effects theories from the previous week, this chapter takes a look at four more theories that have been applied in the explanation of the general effects of mass communication on the audience. The theories under discussion here are: The Bullet theory, Cultivation theory, Spiral of silence and Media hegemony.
The Bullet theory
This is one of the earliest theories that were used in explaining the effects of mass communication. Based on the general state of fear, alarm and uncertainties during the World Wars, people tended to respond en mass to the propaganda that was being used as part of the warfare. Some media observers and communication analysts rushed to what has been often criticized as a 'simplistic conclusion' that communication messages produced strong and more or less universal effects on all audience members who happen to be exposed to such messages. In line with the idea of instant and uniform response to communication, the theory was also known as the 'Hypodermic Needle theory' or the 'Transmission Belt theory'.
The theory implies that the mass media could influence a very large group of people directly and uniformly by ‘shooting’ or ‘injecting’ them with messages, which would produce a desired response immediately. 

The instruments used as symbols in the theory (a bullet and a needle) suggest a powerful and direct flow of information from the sender to the receiver. The bullet theory graphically suggests that the message is a bullet, fired from the "media gun" into the viewer's "head" and whenever one is hit by the bullet the response must be to fall. With similarly imagery the hypodermic needle model suggests that media messages are injected straight into the body of the receiver and that he or she is immediately influenced by the message.
Case Study: Orson Welles and "War of the Worlds"
An example of the application of the Bullet Theory was illustrated by Orson Welles' "War of the Worlds" radio drama. Based on an 1897 science fiction by H.G Wells titled, "The War of the Worlds", an American actor, Orson Welles, produced a radio adaptation for broadcast on October 30, 1938. On the eve of Halloween, radio programming was interrupted with a "news bulletin" for the first time. The  was told that aliens from planet Mars had begun an invasion of Earth starting from Grover's Mill, New Jersey. It became known as the "Panic Broadcast" that stirred terror in the hearts of many Americans. Approximately 12 million people in the United States heard the broadcast and about one million of them actually believed that a serious invasion from Mars was underway. Consequently, a wave of mass hysteria disrupted lives and work, religious services were disrupted, and the streets were jammed with traffic as people tried to seek safer refuge, and communication systems were. People fled their city homes to seek shelter in more rural areas, some raided grocery stores to stock up food supplies. As a result of the broadcast, the nation was in a state of utter chaos that could be likened to the aftermath of the terror attacks in New York on  September 11, 2001. 
Criticisms of the Bullet theory
The Bullet theory was severely criticized by later researchers who argued that:
• The theory had a very limited scope of application if any. This model of communication was likely to obtain only in situations of wars and emergencies or in highly autocratic societies when and where members of the audience have neither time nor platforms to make their own decisions regarding how to respond to messages, usually from the authorities.  
• It assumed that audience members were gullible and would quickly respond to any media message they are exposed to. 
• It also assumed that the audience was passive and had little or no intellectual ability to process information before reacting. 
• Factors such as biographic differences (e.g. age, gender, educational qualification) and psychographic characteristics (such as attitudes, values, emotional state) mean that different individuals are likely to respond differently to communication messages rather than in a uniform manner.
As more and more doubts were expressed about the validity of this theory, some researchers (Lazersfeld et.al., 1944) conducted studies during the 1940 US presidential elections to determine whether campaign messages in the mass media did produce instant and uniform responses from voters. They found that contrary to the magic bullet effect, the majority of voters were not influenced by the campaign propaganda in the mass media. Instead, interpersonal communication such as campaign rallies and town hall meetings had more impact on voter decision than the media. 
Thus, the bullet theory was overtaken by a variety of other functional theories such the two-step of flow theory and Diffusion of Innovations.

Today, in the era of interactive communication facilitated by new media such as the internet, social media (tweeter, Face book, You tube) the Bullet theory has become even more irrelevant.  

Nevertheless, there are some who still believe that communication has instant and mass impact on audiences. Some have spoken of the growing manipulation of the human mind by powerful global TV networks and film makers. In 1985, James Combs, a professor of political science and film studies, warned that "Students of political communication should learn from Orwell that in the future, communication can be used to stamp out human minds." 
QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 
• Are there current situations in Oman or the Arabian Gulf in which the Bullet theory might apply? 
• How did the audience in Oman react to warnings in the mass media about cyclone GONU in 2007?

Cultivation Theory
"The television set has become a key member of the family, the one who tells most of the stories most of the time." - (Gerbner et.al 1980)
According to research done by George Gerbner, the average viewer watches television four hours a day. Heavy viewer watch even more. As Gerbner puts it, "For heavy viewers, television virtually monopolizes and subsumes other sources of information, ideas and consciousness." The effect of all this exposure is what Gerbner calls 'cultivation' - 
Cultivation can be defined as the propagation of a common viewpoint, common roles and common values to the audience. 
The Cultivation theory therefore focuses on the enormous appeal of television and the consequences for social experience - the degree to which our experience is mediated through the words and images of this dominant medium. According to George Gerbner and his colleagues at the Annenberg School of Communication, University of Pennsylvania, television is responsible for a major 'cultivating' and 'aculturating' process according to which people are exposed systematically to a selective view of society on almost every aspect of life, a view which tends to shape their beliefs and values accordingly. The environment is so monopolized by television that its lessons are continually learned and relearned. Television is therefore seen as a social force and agency of socialization and control. 
In one of the surveys which led to this theorization, Gerbner and Gross (1976) found that heavy viewers gave answers (about certain issues) that were similar to the way those issues were presented on television. Light viewers, on the other hand, gave responses that were very different from television reality.
Critics of the Cultivation theory argue that the studies upon which the theory is based did not control for other variables that might have influenced the results. They maintain that if such variables were controlled, the effect of television in cultivation of values or habits might become minimal.

The Spiral of Silence theory
This has been described as "a theory which gives the mass media more power than many other theories. It was developed by Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann, and its focus is on the dynamics of public opinion. Neumann argues that the mass media have powerful effects on public opinion because of three characteristics: cumulation, ubiquity and consonance of opinions. These three attributes refer to the unified or common picture of an issue that is often presented by different media (newspapers, magazines, radio, television networks and other media). 
The Spiral of silence theory states that whenever there is a controversial issue, people take sides depending on what they perceive to be the dominant view. People first gauge whether they are among the majority or whether public opinion is shifting to their position. If they find that they are in the minority, or that public opinion is changing away from their point of view, they tend to keep silent. And the more they remain silent, the more other people feel that the particular point of view is not represented, and the more they also remain silent, thus creating a spiral or chain of silence. In other words, the willingness of an individual to speak out on an issue is greatly influenced by the individual's perception of the climate of opinion. If the climate of opinion goes against the individual's opinion, he or she will keep quiet. And the reason for doing so is the fear of isolation.
According to Neumann, the mass media affect this spiral of silence in three ways:
• They shape impressions about which opinions are dominant
• They shape impressions about which opinions are increasing
• They shape impressions about which opinions one can hold in public without becoming isolated or seen as insensitive.
Criticisms of the Spiral of silence theory have dwelt on the use of alternative media, underground movements and even the current explosion of New media, which are giving voice to the voiceless.
QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION 
In most Arab societies, the mass media have powerful effects on public opinion. They are tightly controlled by government, and therefore there is not much divergence of public opinion, especially on controversial issues. Yet, the revolutions that are today known as the Arab Spring did take place. What was responsible for this shift away from the spiral of silence that could have prevailed?

Media Hegemony
The concept of 'Hegemony' is derived from Gramsci's 1971 term for a ruling ideology. According to Karl Marx, "The history of the human race is the history of class struggles". Societies have dominant classes, be they upper class, the ruling class, the economic power house, the political leadership, celebrities, experts, military power, monarchy, and the middle and lower classes. In the global society, some countries are identified as 'superpowers', 'developed nations', 'industrialized nations' or 'nuclear powers'. At the other end, there are 'developing', 'emerging' or even 'Third World' nations
Media Hegemony theory states that the mass media play a huge role in making the ideas of the ruling class in society to become the ruling ideas. 
Proponents of this theory argue that the culture of media - news, entertainment, fiction, adverts and opinions - help to maintain class divisions and class domination in society. Hegemony refers to ruling ideas dominant in a society in a way that makes the established order of power and values to appear natural or normal. The ruling ideology may not be imposed but appears to exist and accepted by virtue of an unquestioned consensus. Hegemony defines unacceptable opposition to the status quo as deviant, dissident, rebellion or even subversion. Thus, hegemony constantly reasserts definition of social reality. The mass media do not define reality on their own, but give preferential access to the definitions of those in authority -  news sources, attributions, expert voices, celebrities, news subjects.
The mass media, through ownership, control, content and coverage maintain or reinforce the class structures that are already in existence. As the mass media are controlled by the dominant class, they are used to implement the control of the ruling class over the rest of society.
The role of the mass media in sustaining the ideology of the ruling class (media hegemony) is based on three assumptions:
• The training and socialization of journalists includes routines, orientations and guidelines that are influenced by the dominant ideology
• Journalists tend to cover topics and present news that reflect the wishes and agenda of the ruling class
• Journalists tend to present pro-American coverage and negative coverage of foreign countries, especially Third World countries.





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Voice Intonation

Intonation means the way someone's voice rises and falls as they're speaking. Your emotions, your regional accent, or just the particular way you're used to speaking can all affect the intonation of your voice. There's something musical in the way people speak, and intonation describes that musicality
Intonation means the way someone's voicerises and falls as they're speaking. Your emotions, your regional accent, or just the particular way you're used to speaking can all affect the intonation of your voice. There's something musical in the way people speak, and intonation describes that....

What is the function of intonation?

In linguistics, intonation refers to the way in which a speaker varies his or her pitch when pronouncing words. Along with stress (the way certain words are emphasized), intonation is an element of linguistic prosody. "Pitch" refers to the height of one's voice when saying a word. Normal speech is delivered at midlevel, and intonation involves altering one's pitch. "Sentence stress" is also part of intonation, and it involves pronouncing some words at a higher pitch and more clearly to emphasize them.

Intonation has several functions. It allows the speaker to convey emotions and attitudes in speech, such as finality, joy, sadness, etc. Intonation also allows the speaker to stress certain words. In addition, intonation can help the speaker convey the grammar of the spoken words by pausing at certain points, for example, or by raising the voice to ask a question. In addition, intonation can help the speaker convey what he or she expects of the listener(s) in discourse by, for example, seeming to ask a question or by conveying when something is new information in contrast to information the listener already knows.





Intonation



Grammar > Using English > Spoken English > Intonation

from English Grammar Today

Intonation describes how the voice rises and falls in speech. The three main patterns of intonation in English are: falling intonation, rising intonation and fall-rise intonation.

Falling intonation

Falling intonation describes how the voice falls on the final stressed syllable of a phrase or a group of words. A falling intonation is very common in wh-questions.

Where’s the nearest p↘ost-office?

What time does the film f↘inish?

We also use falling intonation when we say something definite, or when we want to be very clear about something:

I think we are completely l↘ost.

OK, here’s the magaz↘ine you wanted.

See also:

Questions: wh-questions

Rising intonation

Rising intonation describes how the voice rises at the end of a sentence. Rising intonation is common in yes-no questions:

I hear the Health Centre is expanding. So, is that the new d↗octor?

Are you th↗irsty?

Fall-rise intonation

Fall-rise intonation describes how the voice falls and then rises. We use fall-rise intonation at the end of statements when we want to say that we are not sure, or when we may have more to add:

I do↘n’t support any football team at the m↘om↗ent. (but I may change my mind in future).

It rained every day in the firs↘t w↗eek. (but things improved after that).

We use fall-rise intonation with questions, especially when we request information or invite somebody to do or to have something. The intonation pattern makes the questions sound more polite:

Is this your cam↘er↗a?

Would you like another co↘ff↗ee?





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set design for animated films production

How to design a set for an animated film
One of the most important aspects of any set in animation is the fact that it should work as a stage for the characters and story, as well as any action that takes place within it. When you look back at some of the classic feature film animations, you'll notice that each frame is designed so that it contains the best composition to tell the story. Your set design should be no different: it should first and foremost be designed for the camera and story.
I find the easiest way to begin is to imagine a scene or actual shot from the final film with a strong story point, and stage it in the clearest way possible. Afterwards, you can reverse engineer the actual design of the set and props.
As a visual development artist, a large part of the job is being able to visualise what the film could look like aesthetically, using techniques such as lighting, texture and stylisation to get that vision across.
Another big consideration that relates specifically to film versus traditional illustration is the time the audience has to digest information. In an illustration, the purpose is to capture the viewer's attention for as long as possible; to elicit their appreciation of small details and paint strokes.
However, in film the viewer only has a limited amount of time to digest the visual information put forth by the camera in a shot. Essentially, every second counts!
The production pipeline of a typical animated short or a movie can be divided into three stages : pre-production, production and post-production. In this article we will be discussing these three key stages in detail.
Pre-Production
The first process in the animation pipeline, and also one of the most important, is pre-production. It begins with the main concepts which are initially turned into a full story, and then, once the story has been finalized, other things such as the script, shot sequence and camera angles are worked on.
Some major components of pre production are Story Boarding, Layouts, Model Sheets and Animatics.
...they also provide a visual reminder of the original plan; something that can be referred back to throughout the production.
Story Boarding
The Storyboard helps to finalize the development of the storyline, and is an essential stage of the animation process. It is made up of drawings in the form of a comic strip, and is used to both help visualise the animation and to communicate ideas clearly. It details the scene and changes in the animation, often accompanied by text notes describing things occurring within the scene itself, such as camera movements.
Not only can storyboards be especially useful when working in group environments (something quite common in the animation industry,) but they also provide a visual reminder of the original plan; something that can be referred back to throughout the production.

Layouts
Once the storyboards have been approved, they are sent to the layout department which then works closely with the director to design the locations and costumes. With this done they begin to stage the scenes, showing the various characters' positions throughout the course of each shot.
Model Sheets
Model sheets are precisely drawn groups of pictures that show all of the possible expressions that a character can make, and all of the many different poses that they could adopt. These sheets are created in order to both accurately maintain character detail and to keep the designs of the characters uniform whilst different animators are working on them across several shots.
During this stage the character designs are finalized so that when production starts their blueprints can be sent to the modeling department who are responsible for creating the final character models.

Animatics
In order to give a better idea of the motion and timing of complex animation sequences and VFX-heavy scenes, the pre-visualization department within the VFX studio creates simplified mock-ups called “Animatics” shortly after the storyboarding process.
These help the Director plan how they will go about staging the above sequences, as well as how visual effects will be integrated into the final shot.
Production
Now that the storyboard has been approved the project enters the production phase. It's here that the actual work can start, based on the guidelines established during preproduction. Some major parts are layout, modeling, texturing, lighting, rigging and animation.
[layout artists] produce the 3D version of what storyboard artists had previously drawn on paper.
Layout
Using lo-res models or blocks of geometry in the place of the final set and characters, the Layout Artist is responsible for composing the shot and delivering rough animation to the animators as a guide. What they produce is the 3D version of what the storyboard artists had previously drawn on paper.
During this stage the Director approves camera moves, depth of field and the composition of the models making up the set and set dressing. It is then the responsibility of the Modeling department to deliver these approved set, prop and character models in the final layout stages.
Modelling
Modelers are usually split into two or more departments. Whilst organic modelers tend to have a sculpture background and specialise in building the characters and other freeform surfaces, hard-surface modelers often have a more industrial design or architectural background, and as such they model the vehicles, weapons, props and buildings.
Working closely with the Art Directors, Visual Effects Supervisors and Animation Supervisors, modelers turn the 2D concept art and traditionally sculpted maquettes into high detail, topologically sound 3D models. They then assist the Technical Animator and Enveloper as the model has a skeleton put in place and the skin is developed. Following this, the model may be handed back to the Modeler, who will proceed to sculpt facial expressions and any specific muscle tension/jiggle shapes that may be required.

Once the model is approved, it will be made available to the rigging and texture paint departments, who complete the final stages in preparing the model for animation and rendering. With luck, the model will move through the production pipeline without coming back for modeling fixes, although some amount of fixes are inevitable - problems with models sometimes don't appear until the rendering stage, in which case the lighter will send the model back to be fixed.

Texturing
Whether creating a texture from scratch or through editing an existing image, Texturing Artists are responsible for writing shaders and painting textures as per the scene requirements.

Working hand-in-hand with the surfacing and shading departments, textures are painted to match the approved concept art and designs which were delivered by the art department. These textures are created in the form of maps which are then assigned to the model.

...lighting TDs combine the latest version of the animation, the effects, the camera moves, the shaders and textures, and render out an updated version every day.
Lighting
Not only does a Lighting Artist have to think lighting the individual scenes, they also have to consider how to bring together all of the elements that have been created by the other departments. In most companies, lighting TDs combine the latest version of the animation, the effects, the camera moves, the shaders and textures into the final scenes, and render out an updated version every day.
Lighters have a broad range of responsibilities, including placing lights, defining light properties, defining how light interacts with different types of materials, the qualities and complexities of the realistic textures involved, how the position and intensity of lights affect mood and believability, as well as color theory and harmony. They are required to establish direct and reflected lighting and shadows for each assigned shot, ensuring that each shot fits within the continuity of a sequence, all the while aiming to fulfill the vision of the Directors, Production Designers, Art Directors and VFX Supervisors.
Rigging
Rigging is the process of adding bones to a character or defining the movement of a mechanical object, and it's central to the animation process. A character TD will make test animations showing how a creature or character appears when deformed into different poses, and based on the results corrective adjustments are often made.

The rigging department is also involved in developing cloth simulation – so as well as making a character able to clench their fist or rotate their arm, the rigging and cloth department is responsible for making their costume move in a believable manner.


...planning a character's performance frame by frame uses the same basic principles first developed for 2D animation.
Animation
In modern production companies, the practice of meticulously planning a character's performance frame by frame is applied in 3D graphics using the same basic principles and aesthetic judgments that were first developed for 2D and stop-motion animation. If motion capture is used at the studio to digitize the motion of real actors, then a great deal of an animator's time will also be spent cleaning up the motion captured performance and completing the portions of the motion (such as the eyes and hands) that may not have been digitized during the process.
The effects team also produce elements such as smoke, dust, water and explosions, although development on these aspects does not start until the final animation/lighting has been approved as they are integral to the final shot and often computationally heavy.
Post-Production
Post-production is the third and final step in film creation, and it refers to the tasks that must be completed or executed after the filming or shooting ends. These include the editing of raw footage to cut scenes together, inserting transitional effects, working with voice and sound actors and dubbing to name just a few of the many post-production tasks.
Overall, however, the three main phases of post-production are compositing, sound editing and video editing.
Compositing
The compositing department brings together all of the 3D elements produced by the previous departments in the pipeline, to create the final rendered image ready for film! Compositors take rendered images from lighters and sometimes also start with compositing scripts that TDs develope in order to initially comp together their dailies (working versions of the shot.)

General compositing tasks include rendering the different passes delivered by a lighting department to form the final shot, paint fixes and rotoscoping (although compositors sometimes rely on mattes created by a dedicated rotoscoping department), as well as the compositing of fx elements and general color grading.

Sound Editing
This department is responsible for selecting and assembling the sound recordings in preparation for the final sound mix, ensuring lip sync and adding all of the sound effects required for the final film.
Video Editing
Video editing is the process of manipulating and rearranging shots to create a seamless final product, and it is at this stage that any unwanted footage and scenes are removed. Editing is a crucial step in making sure the video flows in a way which achieves the initial goal. Other tasks include titling and adding any effects to the final video and text.
Conclusion
The production pipeline detailed above is broadly common in most studios, however each studio is likely to have a custom pipeline determined by the type of project they are currently undertaking. A 2D production pipeline starts with workbook and goes all the way through final checking, composting and film output, whilst the 3D CGI production process emphasizes the design, modeling and rigging and animation stages. Moreover, animation production is a very coordinated process where different teams of artists work together while utilizing optimum resources and achieving the initial goal in the time available.

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Production design for film video

How to Create Great Production Design for Film & Video
Production design is the key to creating the world in which a film exists. Let’s take a look at what it takes to develop solid production design.
Top Image: JJ Abrams and Daisy Ridley on the set of Star Wars: The Force Awakens via Lucasfilm.
Production design is a huge component of the filmmaking or video production process. There’s a lot that you can convey to your audience through great production design. With this in mind, we’re going to rely on the experience and knowledge of Colin Gibson (Mad Max: Fury Road), Grant Major (Lord of the Rings: Return of the King), Rick Carter (Star Wars: The Force Awakens), and the legendary Stuart Craig (Harry Potter Series).
Through each one of these Academy Award-winning Production Designers, we’ll learn what we need to do to take our productions to the next level.
What Is Production Design?
Production design is the process of developing and creating the “look” of a film or video environment. This includes creating the initial concepts, building sets, fabricating costumes, developing makeup effects, and working with the VFX team. In the end, all of these sections come together to present the audience with visual information that establishes a sense of place and conveys an emotional response through the background elements, costumes, and props.
Who Runs the Design Team?
At the head of production design is the production designer or PD. The PD will work closely with the director and cinematographer to set the overall look of the film and to bring the director’s vision to life. They also oversee all aspects of the production design from concept to construction. However, they do not do this alone; there are several key crew members that work alongside the PD.
Production Design Team:
• Art Director (AD): works directly with the PD and oversees the draftsmen, storyboards, artists, and set decorators.
• Production Illustrator or Concept Artist: creates the initial sketches and designs alongside the PD and AD.
• VFX Coordinator or Supervisor: works with the PD to ensure CGI elements match the look of the practical set.
• Set Decorator: develops the look of the set through research and obtains items to fill the set.
• Set Dresser: arranges the items from the set decorator and ensures continuity between scenes.
• Costume Designer: works with the AD to develop the look of the characters, pays close attention to period and place.
• Makeup Artist: oversees all makeup aspects of the production, from simple adjustments to special effects makeup.
Why Is Production Design so Important?
As mentioned above, this is the process of building the physical look of the film. The set, costuming, and makeup design all need to be reflections of one another. If one of these aspects is off, then you run the risk of pulling your audience out of the experience.
One worrisome issue that production designers face in today’s industry is they must fight to retain control over the look of the film due to the reliance on CGI visual effects, as Grant Major mentioned in 2014.
You often have to fight for control of the look of the film when you have the production sub-contract out to digital companies these virtual environments. — Grant Major
In an interview with Deadline, production designer Colin Gibson stated that PDs need to push for practical sets and effects. He mentions that audiences today are far more impressed when a set is practical and crafted by an amazing production design team, which was the approach he took when designing Mad Max: Fury Road.
You still need to get the hair up on the back of people’s necks. You still need real physics. — Colin Gibson
Of course, there’s no stopping the advance of digital filmmaking. While some production designers see this as a possible issue, PD Rick Carter sees it as a natural progression toward a new era of hybrid filmmaking. These are the principles he employed when designing practical and digital elements for Star Wars: The Force Awakens.
There’s something that’s going on with the computer and with hybrid moviemaking… Just a lot that’s physical and a lot that’s digital, and it’s all part of the new vernacular. — Rick Carter
So, as you can see from the words of these Oscar-winning designers, production design is absolutely crucial to a film or video’s success. Let’s look at the collaborative process of designing a film or video.
Production Design: the Three-Part Process
1. Concept
Each production design begins with the production designer reading the script to determine the initial visual style. Once this is done, meetings with the director and cinematographer take place to solidify the design. To make this happen, concept illustrations and mock-ups are researched, produced, and sent to the director and producer for approvals. These concepts and mock-up designs cover set architecture, costumes, props, VFX design, and makeup.
Here’s a video from The Gnomon Workshop that features the legendary concept designer Syd Mead (Blade Runner, Tron, Aliens). In the video, Mead offers crucial design advice and demonstrates some of his storied talent and technique.
2. Planning
Once the designs are approved, the PD’s team moves into the planning stage. Additional research on build locations for the sets takes place. Blueprints for set construction are drafted. Also, budgets and property lists are developed to ensure that this portion of production doesn’t run beyond the funding allowed.
3. Fabrication
Once designs are approved and plans are finalized, the actual fabrication of the design begins. Construction crews come in and actually build the set if needed. Also, the set decorator, dresser, costume designer, and makeup artist begin the process of developing their individual parts of the production design. When this portion is done, the director, cast, and crew begin film production.

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